TIMELINE

TIMELINE

	Geologic Timeline The First 20 Billion Years
15-20 Billion Years Ago	The universe created in a “big bang” some 20 billion years ago (more or less). Before this time, nothing is knowable to science. The universe appears to have been created more or less at once and was initially extremely compact. If has been expanding ever since for the last 15 to 20 billion years.
4.6 Billion Years Ago	The solar system, including the earth, is formed. Scientist believe that all of the planets were formed within a few 100 million years of one another. The age of the Earth has been tested by measuring the ratios of radioactive elements in rocks. The oldest found so far are about 3.5 billion years old. Moon rocks & meteorites have been found to be 4.5 billion years old, which is believed to be the approximate age of the earth.
3.6 Billion Years Ago Life Begins in the Form of Bacteria and Algae	The earliest evidence that we have of life on earth is in the form of microscopic fossils of bacteria that lived as early as 3.6 billion years ago. Evidence of blue-green algae were found in 3 billion year old rocks in the 1980’s The evidence thus far is that the first living things probably evolved within a billion years or so of the Earth’s formation.
570 Million Years Ago.	The period between the formation of the Earth and the Paleozoic era is called the Precambrian Era by geologists and paleontologists. The Precambrian era ends 570 million years ago. Most Precambrian fossils are very small, almost microscopic. The larger species of Precambrian life that lived in later Precambrian time had soft bodies and lacked the shells or bones ordinarily necessary for the formation of readily identifiable fossils. The first abundant fossils of larger animals date from about 600 million years ago. The first mollusk fossils appear in early Cambrian rocks, about 600 million years old.
570 to 225 Million Years Ago (The Paleozoic Era)	The Paleozoic Era lasted from 570 to 225 Million Years Ago. Complex forms of life appear. During this 345 million year period, plants and animals underwent rapid evolution. The Paleozoic era lasted about 345 million years. It includes the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian periods. Index fossils of the first half of the Paleozoic era are those of invertebrates, such as trilobites, graptolites, and crinoids. Remains of plants and such vertebrates as fish and reptiles make up the index fossils of the second half of this era.
570 Million to 500 Million Years Ago.	The Cambrian Period began about 570 million years ago and ended 70 million years later. At the beginning of this 70 million year period, the only animal life we know about lived in the oceans. However, by the end of the period, all the phyla of the animal kingdom existed, excepting only animals with backbones, the vertebrates. Animals common to this period include trilobites (a primitive arthropod, related to the insects, lobsters and ticks), snails, cephalopod mollusks, brachiopods, bryozoans, and foraminifers. Plants of the Cambrian period included seaweeds in the oceans and lichens on land.
500 to 430 Million Years Ago	The Ordovician Period began about 500 million years ago and ended 70 million years later. Small hemichordate worms (graptolites), with an anatomical structure that appear to be a precursor of a spinal cord, appear at the beginning of this period. The end of this period saw the emergence of the first vertebrates, animals with backbones, in the form of primitive fish.
430 to 395 Million Years Ago	The Silurian Period began about 430 million years ago and ended 35 million years later. About 430 million years ago, the first air breathing animal appeared, a scorpion. Simple land plants lacking separate stems and leaves first appeared.
395 to 345 Million Years Ago	The Devonian Period began about 395 million years ago and ended 50 million years later. During this period, fish were dominant, including sharks and lungfish. The ancestors of the amphibians appeared in the form of a primitive form of hard scaled ganoid fish. Early proto-amphibians may have existed during this period. The earliest fossil insect is found in the Devonian period. This is the first period during which significant numbers of fossilized plants have been found. This was the period during which the first woody plants developed. By the end of the period ferns, ferns, scouring rushes and scale trees had developed. There were forests for the first time.
345 to 280 Million Years Ago	The Carboniferous or Mississippian Period began about 345 million years ago and ended 65 million years later. During this period stegocephalia —amphibian land animals developed from the lungfish— first appeared. Plant got larger and more diverse in form. In the second part of the Carboniferous period, known as the Pennsylvanian, the first reptiles appeared, having developed from amphibians. The reptiles lived entirely on land. Insects, spiders, snails, scorpions and over 800 species of cockroaches flourished. The first true conifers developed from gymnosperms during the Pennsylvanian.
280 to 225 Million Years Ago	The Permian Period began about 280 million years ago and ended 45 million years later. During this period many forms of marine animals disappeared, but the reptiles (mostly lizard like) rapidly evolved and spread. Importantly for us, there was one small group of reptiles called the Theriodontia that evolved during this period. This group included the ancestor of all mammals. The forests were largely made up of ferns and conifers.
225 to 65 Million Years Ago (The Mesozoic Era)	The Mesozoic Era lasts from 225 to 65 Million Years Ago, a 165 million year period. This era is often called the Age of Reptiles because dinosaurs and other reptiles were the dominant land animals throughout this era. During this period the seven continents are formed out of one large continent called Pangaea. This period includes the Triassic, Jurassic &Cenozoic.
225 to 195 Million Years Ago	The Triassic Period began about 225 million years ago and ended 30 million years later. The dinosaur first evolved during this period. During this period the dinosaurs were smaller than later, seldom exceeding 15 feet. Sea going reptiles, the ichthyosaurs, and flying reptiles, the pterosaurs also evolved at this time. Of particular importance to us, this was the period in which the first mammals appeared. These were small reptile like creatures, though probably warm blooded. The first bony fish appeared in the ocean. Evergreens, including ginkgoes, conifers and palms dominated the forests. Ferns and small scouring rushes were still present, as they are today, but in smaller numbers, and the larger members of these groups had become extinct.
195 to 136 Million Years Ago	The Jurassic Period began about 196 million years ago and ended 41 million years later. This was the beginning of the age of the large dinosaurs, such as Brontosaurus and Tyrannosaurus. Four orders of mammals now existed by this time, all smaller than the modern dog. Many new insect orders appeared for the first time, such as beetles, grasshoppers and moths. Forests of thick stemmed palm like plants known as cycads were uniformly common, including in the polar regions, indicating the presence of a mild climate over most all of the earth.
136 to 65 Million Years Ago	The Cretaceous Period began about 136 million years ago and ended 71 million years later. Fossils of pterodactyl (flying dinosaurs) were discovered in Texas with wingspreads of up to 50 feet. The first snakes appeared at this time as did several types of birds. During this period the first marsupials and placental mammals appeared, belonging to the group of insectivores. Deciduous plants (Angiosperms) first appeared during the Cretaceous. Most (over 90%) of the modern varieties of trees and shrubs were present by the close of the period. Some paleontologists believe that deciduous woody plants were present during the Jurassic period, but in conditions unfavorable to fossil preservation. For reasons not yet entirely clear, by the end of the Cretaceous period the dinosaurs had become extinct.
65 Million Years Ago to the Present (The Cenozoic Era)	The Cenozoic Era began about 65 million years ago and has not yet ended. The beginning of the Cenozoic marks an abrupt transition from the age of the reptiles to the age the mammals, marked by a dramatic die off of the former. It includes the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, & the Postglacial, epoch (the Holocene).
65 to 54 Million Years Ago	The Paleocene Epoch began about 65 million years ago and ended 11 million years later. There are seven groups of mammals known in this period, each of which apparently developed in Northern Asia before migrating. All had similar features. The largest species was the size of a small bear. They all had four feet and five toes on each foot, and most had slim heads with narrow muzzles and small brains. The three predominate groups are now extinct. One, the creodonts, evolved into the modern carnivores. The other four that survived are the marsupials, the insectivores, the primates, and the rodents.
54 to 38 Million Years Ago	The Eocene Epoch began about 54 million years ago and ended 16 million years later. During this period the ancestors of the horse, rhinoceros, camel, rodent, many modern birds, and monkey all appeared. They were all small in size. The first aquatic mammals, such as the ancestor of the whale appeared.
38 to 26 Million Years Ago	The Oligocene Epoch began about 38 million years ago and ended 12 million years later. The first dog and cat like carnivores appeared, evolving from the creodonts, which became extinct. Several mammal groups that are now extinct flourished, including the titanotheres, which are related to the rhinoceros and the horse, and the oreodonts, which were small, doglike, grazing animals.
26 to 12 Million Years Ago	The Miocene Epoch began about 26 million years ago and ended 14 million years later. The grass family of plants made their appearance for the first time in the Miocene Epoch. This in turn encouraged the further devilment of the grazing animals. The mastodon evolved at this time.
12 Million to 2 Million Years Ago	The Pliocene Epoch began about 12 million years ago and ended 10 million years later. This epoch was similar to the Miocene, but is regarded by some as the climax of the age of mammals.
2 Million Years Ago to the Present (The Quaternary Period)	The Quaternary Period is made up of the Pleistocene epoch and the Postglacial, epoch, the Holocene. It begins 2 million years ago and continues to this day.
2 Million Years Ago to Ten Thousand Years Ago	The Pleistocene epoch began about 2 million years ago and ended ten thousand years ago.. During this period of time as much as 25% of the world was covered with ice. The period is marked by the presence of large mammals, many of which are now extinct, very possibly hunted to extinction by humans.
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	Human Evolution The Last 40 Million Years
70 Million Years Ago.	The earliest fossil primates are 70 million years old. At this time the last of the dinosaurs were still living, but a few million yeas later they were gone. The first primates were small shrewlike creatures.
45 Million Years Ago.	By 45 million years ago a side branch of the ancestral primates gave rise to advanced primates very similar to modern lemurs.
35 Million Years Ago	Primitive monkeylike primates make their appearance, including Propliopithecus, about the size of a cat and believed to be in the ancestral line of humans as well as apes.
35-to 22 Million Years Ago	The first anthropoid apes appeared during the Oligocene Epoch, between 38 and 26 million years ago. The North American anthropoid apes became extinct by the end of the epoch. The protomonkeys and protoapes evolved during this period.
22 Million Years Ago.	The lemurlike primates give rise to the first true monkeys and apes, at the beginning of the Miocene epoch.
22 Million to 10 Million years ago.	Common in Europe and Asia between 10 million and 20 million years ago was a gorilla-like ape, Dryopithecus, the ancestor of both hominids and great apes, such as the chimpanzee and gorilla. A famous ape like creature found in Africa, India and Europe between 15 million and 10 million years ago is Ramapithecus. Another creature, Sivapithecus, appears to be the ancestor of the orangutan. Oriopithecus was a third ape like primate, that lived in Europe about 10 million years ago. None of these is believed to be a hominid, to have walked upright or to have used tools.
6 Million to 8 Million Years Ago	Scientists believe that human beings (hominids) split off from the great apes, the line that eventually led to chimpanzees and gorillas, as early as 6 to 8 million years ago. They have reached this conclusion from the fossil record, but perhaps more importantly, by comparing blood proteins and the DNA of the African great apes with that of humans. The oldest hominid is in the genus Australopithecus of which at least 4 species are well known. Australopithecus, in common with later hominids, walked upright.
6 Million Years Ago to 1.5 Million Years Ago	The oldest Australopithecenes are 5 to 6 million years old, believed to be the immediate ancestor to our genus, the genus homo. The split may have occurred as early as 3.6 million years ago, and for the next 2 million years, the line leading to humans (homo) may have co-existed with the Australopithecenes. There are four known species of Australopithecus: A. afarensis, A. africanus, A. robustus, and A. boisei. The oldest australopithecine is A. afarensis. Between about 2.5 and 3 million years ago, A. afarensis apparently evolved into a later australopithecine, A. africanus. Both species had a brain size slightly larger than a chimpanzee. No tools have been found with the fossils of either species. 2.6 million years ago, there were at least two separate species of hominines. One line evolved toward the genus Homo, and into modern humans, and the other (one or more) developed into australopithecine species that became extinct. Fossils of A. robustus, have been found only in southern Africa, and A. boisei fossils have been found only in eastern Africa. The genus Australopithecus became extinct about 1.5 million years ago.

The Genus Homo Emerges
Homo Habilus
Homo Erectus
Homo Sapien Neanderthalis
Homo Sapien Sapiens

2.5 to 1.5 Million Years Ago	The genus homo is established during this time. The oldest stone tools that have been found are 2 million old choppers used to prepare food. Other evidence shows that these early hominids were eating meat. It is not clear whether the earliest tools were being used by the Australopithecines or by the genus that lead to Homo. The first hand ax did not appear until 1 million years later. Somewhere between 1.5 and 2.5 million years ago, the genus homo split off from the genus Australopithecus. The hominid fossils from this period are curiously mixed. There are hominid fossils from this period with relatively large brains and large teeth, others have small brains and small teeth. (Modern humans have large brains and small teeth.) At the end of this period, fossils from a species called homo habilis have been found in Tanzania and Kenya in eastern Africa, associated with stone tools. Homo habilis has traits that link it with the australopithecines and with later members of the genus Homo.
1.5 Million Years Ago	The genus Australopithecus (the genus giving rise to modern humans) became extinct.
1.5 Million to 750,000 Years Ago	The earliest homo erectus (a large-brained, small-toothed hominid) fossil was found in north Kenya and is approximately 1.5 million years old. This species was confined to east Africa for 750,000 years. Homo erectus suddenly breaks out of Africa and into the tropical areas of Europe and Asia, approximately 750,000 years ago.
500,000 years ago	Fire discovered. By this time homo erectus is established in many of the world’s temperate zones, is making more sophisticated tools, and has even discovered and begun to use fire. Homo erectus was now killing large mammals. The brain size of the species, by the end of its evolution, was within the range of modern humans.
Between 450,000. and 200,000 years ago.	H. erectus evolved into H. sapiens. The early homo sapiens, though of the same species as ourselves, differed in appearance from modern humans. The oldest homo sapien fossil is a 400,000-450,000 year old fossil occipital bone from the base of a skull found in Hungary. The fossil was associated with fire and stone tools. Although the skull had a crest at the outer neckline like H. erectus, the shape was otherwise essentially modern.
150,000 to 35,000 years ago	H. sapiens neanderthalis live in ice age Europe and the Middle East, before becoming extinct about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. Although scientist are not in agreement, it appears that Homo Sapiens Sapiens (modern humans) developed independently of the Neanderthals, and probably did not interbreed (since they lived along side one another for millennia with scanty fossil evidence of cross over in genes). The Neanderthals made extensive use of tools (though not to the extent of H. Sapiens Sapiens. Some of the burials are of aged or handicapped people who the Neanderthals must have felt important enough to care for. Scientists are divided as to whether Neanderthals were capable of speech.
90,000 years ago (perhaps as early as 200,000 years ago)	Anatomically modern humans appear.

Before the Common Era

30,000 Years Ago	The native Americans, humans of east Asian descent cross the bearing strait and enter the Western Hemisphere.
30,000 to 25,000 Years Ago	One of the oldest of many similar works of art, this one known as the Venus of Willendorf, was found in Austria. This object, of which many like have been found all over Europe, from Russia to France, is a figure of a woman, without facial characteristics, with what can best be described as pendulous breasts and a large belly, probably pregnant, belly. Its sexual characteristics are exaggerated and are believed to denote fertility.
20,000 Years Ago	The bow and arrow invented.
14,000-12,000 B.C.E.	The famous cave paintings in the Altamira cave in northern Spain and in the Lascaux Grotto near Montignac, France show a very high degree of artistic skill manifested by ice age humans.
	The Discovery of Agriculture and the Rise of Civilization The Last 8,000 Years
8000 B.C.E.	The cultivation of grain begins in the fertile crescent of the middle eastern river valleys and alluvial plains. The basic grains were wheat, rice, rye, oats, millet, and barley. The fermentation process used for making wine and beer is simultaneously discovered.
7500 B.C.E.	Jericho, perhaps the oldest walled city in the world, has a population of approximately 2500.
7000 B.C.E.	Pottery is used for many purposes.
7000 B.C.E.	The Papuans (found today in New Guinea), developed an agricultural civilization in the Pacific Islands.
6000 B.C.E.	Linen (made from flax) is used for clothing.
5000 B.C.E.	Sumeria settled. The beginnings of Mesopotamian civilization in the area near the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys (modern Iraq), must have seemed like the “garden of Eden” to the Neolithic settlers who found the rich sandy soil to be very conducive to agriculture.
5000 B.C.E.	Irrigation in use in Mesopotamia.
5000 B.C.E.	Copper used extensively by early civilizations. Unsmelted copper may have been as early as 8000 B.C.E..
5000 B.C.E.	Maize or corn is cultivated in North America, in what is now Mexico.
5000 B.C.E.- 3000 B.C.E.	Between 5000 and 3000 B.C.E. The new stone age Kurgan culture, perhaps using metals, and having agriculture and domestic animals, was located in the steppes, west of the Urals. It is believed that these peoples were the original Indo-European speakers, whose language is the basis for the principal languages of all of modern Europe, Iran and India, and includes such diverse languages as Hindi and Sanskrit (India), Gaelic/Celtic (Scotland, Ireland, Wales), Germanic, English, Latin (and all of the Romance languages), Greek, Persian (Iran), Russian, Romani (Gypsy), Norwegian, Slavic, etc. In addition, Anatolian (including Hittite) and Tocharian (spoken in medieval Chinese Turkestan), all now extinct, were Indo-European languages. This culture had spread throughout Eastern Europe, Northern Iran, and perhaps India, by 2000 B.C.E. Although by 2000 BC, classical Greek, Avestan (ancient Persian), Sanskrit (and even Hittite), for example were distinct languages, a thousand years earlier, they were fairly unified. Thus, in 3000 B.C.E. the people who would later speak Hindi, Persian and Greek could quite possibly have communicated with one another freely, in languages similar enough to be understood by each, if indeed, the people were related to the language they spoke.
4500 B.C.E.	Boats and ships are constructed by “primitive people.”
4000 B.C.E.	There are four main distinct ancestral languages spoken in Africa: Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Kordofanian, and Khoisan. They appear to be very old. The Mande branch may have broken off from of the Niger-Congo subfamily of the of the Niger-Kordofanian language group as early as 6,000 years ago. The Afroasiatic language group is spoken mainly in north Africa, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Somalia. Hausa is a member of this group (a member of a language branch called Chadic) is the second most widely spoken language of sub-Saharan Africa. As many as 15 million people may use this language as a first language and many others as a second. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken from Mali to the Nile basin, in and south of the Sahara, and in Uganda, Kenya and northern Tanzania in east Africa. Niger-Kordofanian languages are spoken almost everywhere in Africa, from the west coast to the east coast, from Senegal to Kenya, South Africa, southern Sudan, Nigeria, Cameroon, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Benin Liberia, Sierra Leone. A majority of all the languages of Africa are included in a Niger-Kordofanian sub-family, the Niger-Congo. Yoruba and Igbo are in this group, which includes perhaps 10 million speakers of each. Recently, the Bantu language groups have been determined to be Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo subfamily of Niger-Kordofanian languages. Bantu languages (which include Swahili with its 20 to 30 million speakers) makes up more than one-third of African languages. Khoisan is the smallest of the four African language groups. This group includes the language of the Bushmen and Hottentots.
4000 B.C.E.	The beginning of Sumer’s recorded history.
4000 B.C.E.	The horse is tamed for riding.
4000 B.C.E.	The plow is invented.
4000 B.C.E.	There is unmistakable evidence of a flood in Mesopotamia of gigantic proportions. “The disaster engulfed an area north-west of the Persian Gulf amounting to 400 miles long and 100 miles wide.”^[1]
4000 B.C.E.	The beginnings of the Sumarian Civilization in the Mesopotamian river valley.
4000 B.C.E.	The wheel may have been invented as early as 8000 B.C.E., but by 4000 B.C.E. it was being attached to carts for transportation.
3900 B.C.E.	Adam and Eve created, if the Biblical timeline is taken literally.
3500 B.C.E.	Sumarian civilization is flourishing, with large buildings, temple worship, kings and art in the form of frieze frescoes.
3500 B.C.E.	Copper is alloyed with tin to create bronze, a much stronger metal than copper.
3500 B.C.E.E	The use of numbers invented, probably in Sumer.
3200 B.C.E.	The beginning of Egypt’s recorded history.
3100 B.C.E.	Cuneiform writing invented in Sumer.
3100 B.C.E.	The original construction of Stonehenge probably begun. Additions were made for the next 1500 years.
3100 to 2700 B.C.E.	First two archaic Egyptian dynasties.
3000 B.C.E.	Phoenician’s settle Mediterranean coast.
3000 B.C.E.	Minoan civilization flourishes in Crete.
3000 B.C.E.	Epic of Gilgamesh (the Sumarian Noah) composed, according to Compton’s Encyclopedia. However, the famous and near complete 12 tablet cuniform Akkadian (Babylonian) text found in Mesopotamia were transcribed a thousand years later, around 2000 B.C.E. It is probable that the written epic was based upon an earlier tradition, undoubtedly Sumarian, but whether or not the story goes back another 1000 years is problematic.
3000 B.C.E.	The Semitic languages can be divided into four principal groups. The oldest known Semitic language, Akkadian (the language of Assyria and Babylonia) was commonly spoken in Mesopotamia between 3000 and 500 B.C.E. Hebrew language, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Canaanite, Aramaic (the language of Christ) and Syriac are included in the a group of related Semitic languages known as the North Central group. The South Central group includes Arabic. The South Peripheral group includes certain of the South Arabic dialects and the languages of Ethiopia. Semitic words are based on a series of three consonants, called the root, which carries the basic meaning. A pattern of superimposed vowels signal differences in the basic meaning. Where and when the Semitic speakers originated is uncertain. Most scholars think these people probably originated in southwestern Asia or in Arabia. The evidence suggests that Semites were scattered throughout Mesopotamia before the establishment of Sumarian culture, which would place them earlier than 4000 B.C.E. Wave after way of Semitic nomads periodically emerged from the desert wastes to invade Mesopotamia, Egypt, Canaan and the Levant.
2800 B.C.E.	Old Kingdom in Egypt. Sumerian Flood
2780 B.C.E.	First pyramid.
2755-2255 B.C.E.	Egyptian “Old Kingdom” 3rd-6th Dynasties. The great pyramids (2550B.C.E.) and the Great Sphinx constructed. The largest pyramid rests on a base of 13 acres and is 481 feet high.
2687 B.C.E.	Huangi Ti Emperor.
2650 B.C.E.	Zoser Step Pyramid built.
2600 B.C.E.	Crete enters the Bronze Age.
2500 B.C.E.	Civilization in the Indus valley (Mohanjo-Daro) flourishes.
2500 B.C.E.	Camels domesticated. Camels, however, were not common in Egypt until at least the 6th century B.C.E., though they were used in Mesopotamia several hundred years earlier.
2400 B.C.E.	Sumerian Wars
2350 B.C.E.	Yao Lugalzaggisi Unites Sumer
2350 B.C.E.	Sumerian empire founded.
2340 B.C.E.	Sargon conquers Sumer, uniting it with Akkadia.
2530 B.C.E.	Geat Pyramid, Cheops.
2300 B.C.E.	Paper invented in Egypt.
2255-2134 B.C.E.	Egyptian “First Intermediate period” 7th-11th Dynasties.
2279 B.C.E.	Sargon dies.
2244 B.C.E.	The Flood comes when Noah is 600. (600+1056=1656) (Abraham made his famous trek to and through the promised land around 1900 B.C.E., about 2000 years after year zero, using Biblical chronology. So, year 1656 would be about 2244 B.C.E., if your counting.)
2200 B.C.E.	Hsia. Joman culture in Japan.
2200 B.C.E.	Akkadia at peak. Ur at its height.
2180 B.C.E.	Akkadia ends with death of Naramsin?
2134-1784 B.C.E.	The Middle Kingdom in Egypt was ruled by the 11th and 12th Dynasties.
2150 B.C.E.	Aryans invade Indus valley.

2000 B.C.E.	Peoples from Southeast Asia arrived in Melanesia by boat.
2000 B.C.E.	The Semitic Amorites control Sumer and Akkad under King Hammurabi, famous for his code of laws.
2000 B.C.E.	The oldest known Inuit (or Eskimo) societies have been found on Umnak Island in the Aleutians.
2000 B.C.E.	Epic of Gilgamesh (the Sumarian Noah) was reduced to writing in the cuniform script in the Akkadian language. It is probable that the written epic was based upon an earlier tradition, undoubtedly Sumarian, but whether or not the story goes back another 1000 years, as suggested by some sources is problematic.
2000-1200 B.C.E.	The Hittites, very probably an early Indo-European people dominate Asia Minor (Anatolia/Turkey). Arount 1200, the Hittites fell to the hordes of mysterious mixed Indo-European invaders know as the People of the Sea. The Hittite Empire begins in 1620 B.C.E.. The Hittites are known to have lived in Anatolia (Turkey) as long ago as 3000 B.C.E.. They formed a kingdom around 2000 B.C.E. which reached its peak in about 1350 B.C.E.. The secret to the Hittite success was probably the fact that they discovered how to smelt iron. Iron was not as effective as bronze but it was much cheaper. To make iron, a hotter fire than the one that can be created naturally is needed. Bellows and the use of coke or coal are used to achieve the heat needed. The Hittites were able to closely guard the secret for making iron for many years, and in the interim, the cheap manufacture of iron war materials enabled them to dominate their neighbors.
1900 B.C.E. (or maybe 2100)	Abraham, or someone like him, journeys to Canaan. Exact date is uncertain.
1900 B.C.E.	Chariot invented.
1860 B.C.E.	Stonehenge.
1830 B.C.E.	Babylonian Kings. Ammorites.
1800 to 1570 B.C.E.	Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period (13th-17th Dynasties). For a little over 200 years, Egypt was either unstable or in turmoil. At the beginning of this period, we know that were large numbers of Hyksos in northern Egypt. The Hyksos were Semites, presumably closely related to the Hebrews and other Semitic Canaanites. Their presence at this time may account for a further influx of nomads from coastal Phoenicia and Palestine and the eventual establishment of the Hyksos dynasty as the 15th Dynasty of Egypt. The Hyksos introduced the horse into Egypt, and is probably the main reason they were able to conquer the country so easily. The domination by the Hyksos may account for the fact that Joseph and his brothers may have been welcomed sometime during this period. At least 50 pharaohs, ruled during the 120 year period of the 13th Dynasty. The rulers of the 13th Dynasty, most all weak, were challenged first by the rival 14th Dynasty, and finally by the Hyksos. The Hyksos controlled middle and northern Egypt from their capital at Avaris in the eastern delta. Simultaneously, the native Egyptian rulers of the 16th Dynasty ruled the delta and Middle Egypt, but probably as tributaries to the Hyksos. In the South, a third contemporaneous power arose, the Theban or 17th Dynasty. This force ruled over the territory between Elephantine and Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose, who reigned around 1576-1570 B.C.E., routed the Hyksos on several occasions. His brother, Ahmose I, finally subdued theme entirely thereby reuniting Egypt, initiating the 18th Dynasty in 1570 B.C.E.
1760 B.C.E.	Shang.
1730-20 B.C.E.	Hyksos.
1700-2000 B.C.E.	The Indo Europeans (Aryans) invade and conquer India. There close relatives, the Iranians (Persians and Medes) move into the Iranian plateau.
1728 B.C.E.	Accesion of Hammurabi.
	Code of Hammurabi published. Hammurabi was an early Babylonian Semite king. This was a comprehensive law code covering many aspects of daily life, and regulating human relationships in such matters as contracts, tort, marriage and divorce. Punishments provided were often in the “eye for an eye” category, the intention being that the punishment should fit the crime. A stone engraved text of the code was discovered in Susa (in what is now Iran) in 1901. It can be seen in the Louvre in Paris.
1686 B.C.E.	Hammurabi dies.
1600 B.C.E.	The Hittites destroy Babylon.
1600-1350 B.C.E.	Beginning to peak of Hittite Civilization.

1500 B.C.E.	Mohanjo Daro destroyed.
1500 B.C.E.	The Hindu sacred Vedas (epic poems and hymns) are reduced to Sanskrit, perhaps as early as 1700 B.C.E., and perhaps as late, in some cases, as 1200 B.C.E.
1550 B.C.E.	The Shag Dynasty flourishes in China. It may have been founded as early as 1750 B.C.E., but this is uncertain. The Shag Chinese were advanced in the use of bronze. Before the Shag, there is only the legendary His dynasty, about which there is no real archeological evidence.
1570 (or 1500?) B.C.E.	New Kingdom in Egypt.
1570 B.C.E	Hyksos defeated by Egyptians.n
1570 B.C.E.-1293 B.C.E.	In 1570 B.C.E. Ahmose I, founded the 18th Dynasty, which lasted for over 300 years. This is the period of the New Kingdom in Egypt, whose capital was mainly Thebes. The native Egyptians had succeeded in wresting back control from the Hyksos, which may account for the subsequent enslavement of the Semitic Israelites living in Egypt at this time. These Pharoahs knew not Joseph. Amenhotep I, reigned from 1551-1524 B.C.E. He extended Egyptian power into Nubia and Palestine. Amenhotep’s successor, Thutmose I asserted the preeminence of the god Amon (or Aton). Thutmose II married his half sister Hatshepsut. He died in 1504 BC and was succeeded by Thutmose III. Thutmose III was still a child at the time, and so his mother Hatshepsut began by governing as a regent, but before a year was out, she had herself crowned as pharaoh, and then ruled jointly with her son. Hatshepsut died in 1483 B.C.E. and 20 years later Thutmose III had her name and images removed from all public places. Amenhotep II reigned 1453-1419 B.C.E. and was succeeded by Thutmose IV who continued to have problems with the Mitanni and Hittites From 1386 to 1349 B.C.E., Amenhotep III ruled in peace for almost 40 years, during which time art and architecture flourished. He was succeeded by his son, Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV). Akhenaton was succeeded by his son-in-law, Tutankhamen. Horemheb, who reigned 1321-1293 B.C.E. was the last member of the 18th Dynasty.
1400 B.C.E.	Knossos Destroyed.
1400 B.C.E. E.	Iron ore was known long before the technology was developed for smelting it. The technology for smelting iron, was perfected among the Hittites around 1400 B.C.E.. Iron was not as strong or as durable as bronze, but it was cheaper to make. For a long time, the Hittites form their base in Asia Minor (Anatolia, or modern day Turkey) controlled the supply and the secret for smelting iron.
1450 to 1100 B.C.E.	This is the heyday of the Mycenaean Greeks who conquered Troy around 1186 B.C.E.
1450 B.C.E.	The Hittites establish a new Kingdom whose boundaries are the Aegean Sea and deep into Syria and Mesopotamia.
1304 B.C.E.	Ramsese the Great
1350 B.C.E.	Hittites at peak.
1380 B.C.E.	The Hittite King Suppiluliuma ruled from approximately 1380-1346 B.C.E. He conquered the kingdom of the Mitanni in northern Mesopotamia, and then parts of Syria, during the reign of the Akhenaton the monotheist Egyptian pharaoh.
1361 B.C.E.	Tutankamon
1353 to 1336 B.C.E. (or 1379 to 1362 B.C.E. depending on who is reckoning)	King Amenhotep IV (who later changed his name to Akhenaton or Ikhnaton) rules Egypt, and attempts a radical experiment in monotheism, hitherto not practiced anywhere else in the world, with the exception perhaps, of some early versions of Hinduism, and excepting the worship of primary tribal gods. This religion was based upon the worship of Aton, or Aten, the sun god. As you can imagine, Akhenaton (meaning “it is well with Aten”) was not popular with the priesthood, especially the priests of the many other now non existent deities. This religious experiment ended with Akhenaton’s death. Akhenaton’s first wife appears to have been his mother (Tiy). He had one daughter by her. His second wife, the famous queen Nefertiti, was his maternal cousin. His third and fourth wives were not relatives. Akhenaton’s son by his fourth wife was the now famous King Tut (Tutankhamon, named after the sun god Aten that his father had declared was the only god). Akhenaton’s fifth and last marriage was to one of his daughters by Nefertiti. Tutankhamon brought the experiment with monotheism to an end, and returned to the worship of the old Egyptian gods. Tutankhamon married his half sister.
1200 B.C.E.	Peoples of the Sea begin journey of devastation, ultimately destroying the Hittites, among others.
1250 B.C.E.	This is most the most likely time of the Israelite Exodus from Egypt, during the rule of Ramses II, though we cannot be sure.
1230 B.C.E.	Israel in Canaanon
1186 B.C.E.	Troy, a city located on the coast of Asia Minor, was conquered by Mycenaean Greeks in 1186 B.C.E.. Troy had been a prosperous city since 3000 B.C.E.
1122 B.C.E.	Wu Wang founds the Chou dynasty.
1122-222 B.C.E.	The Shag Dynasty in China is overthrown by the Chou Dynasty in 1122 B.C.E., and lasts for 900 years. Confucianism and Taoism arose and flourished during this period.
1100 B.C.E.	Chinese dictionary.
1100 B.C.E.	The semi-historical Dorian Greeks displaced, with general, though not complete success, the Mycenaean, Ionean and other Greek speakers, followed by a dark age for Greece, that later emerges with infused vigor. The Dorians conquered and colonized Sparta, the island of Rhodes and much more. They built the famous Colossus of Rhodes, a bronze statue numbered as one the Seven Wonders of the World.
1020 B.C.E.	This is the date that Saul was installed as King, and marks the beginning of the monarchy in Israel. Saul was succeeded by David, and David by Solomon. After which the kingdom was divided forever between North and South.

1000 B.C.E.	Rg Veda.
1000 B.C.E.	King David rules the united Northern and Southern Kingdoms until his death in 961 B.C.E.
1000 B.C.E.	The Mayan dynasty was founded in Central America and Mexico. This culture reached its height in 500 C.E., and before Cortez arrived to destroy all he could find, the Mayas had been displaced by the Toltecs and Aztecs.
994 B.C.E.	King David captures Jerusalem.
994 B.C.E.	Teutons arrive at the Rhine.
961 B.C.E.	Solomon succeeds David as King until Solomon’s death in 922 B.C.E.. The construction of the temple in Jerusalem was undertaken and completed during his reign. He has 700 wives and 300 concubines.
922 B.C.E.	Following Solomon’s death the Kingdom is divided into two, Judah (and Benjamin and Levy) on the South and Israel (the remaining ten tribes) on the North.
900 B.C.E.-300 B.C.E.	Olmec culture (the oldest in America) flourishes in the coastal lowlands of Mexico and Central America. The Olmecs are known as sculptors. The famous huge Olmec sculptures of heads that appear for all the world like Africans. They built pyramids and used hieroglyphs. Some have suggested that they had an old world or African origin, but this is speculation.
869 B.C.E.	King Ahab (whose wife was Jezebel) rules in Israel until 850 B.C.E. Elijah preached during this period.
800 B.C.E.	Carthage (near modern Tunis) is founded by the Phoenicians (Cannanites). Hannibal was a Carthaginian. Carthage was finally destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war in 146 B.C.E.
800 B.C.E.	The Iliad and The Odyssey, masterpieces of world epic poetry, were recited by a blind poet named Homer, sometime between 850 and 750 B.C.E..
800 B.C.E.	The Kingdom of the Medes, an Indo-European people closely related to the Persians, is being established at Ecbatana.
776 B.C.E.	The first Olympic games are held in Greece.
770-256 B.C.E.	Eastern Chou.
753 B.C.E.E	Rome founded.
721 B.C.E. (or 722)	The Assyrians, under Sargon II, conquer Samaria-Israel (the northern kingdom) and carry away virtually the entire population (the lost 10 tribes), leaving only Benjamin and Judah.
700 B.C.E.	The Greek epic poet Hesiod writes Theogony and Works and Days. The Theogony is about the genesis of the Greek gods. Chaos and Gaea (Mother Earth) begin the story. The Titans are overthrown by Zeus and their other children.
725 B.C.E.-660 B.C.E.	The black pharaohs establish the 25th or Ethiopian dynasty in Egypt, beginning with Piankhy, king of Nubia who conquered Egypt in 725 B.C.E.. An African kingdom had become established in what is now Sudan. This area was known as Nubia or Cush. The Nubians were finally defeated and forced out of Egypt by Assurbanipal. However, they continued to flourish for hundreds of years as the kingdom of the Meroites, south of the fifth cataract of the Nile. Their kingdom extended from the Mediterranean south to the border of Ethiopia, and possibly into modern-day Uganda. For a brief time, Nubia was one of the most powerful empires in the world. With the rise of Assyria, however, the Nubians' position became precarious. They were forced out of Egypt by the Assyrian Assurbanipal, sometime during the 660s B.C.E..
680 B.C.E.?	Thales, the first Greek philosopher (who lived in the 7th and 6th Centuries) tries to explain the world in terms of natural (instead of supernatural) causes.
620 B.C.E.	Money used for the first time. The wealthy King Croesus of Lydia (Asia Minor, Anatolia, Turkey), established the first mint. The idea was popular and quickly spread.
612 B.C.E.	The Medes conquer Assyria and its empire, and destroy the Assyrian capital, Nineveh.
609 B.C.E.	End of Assyrian empire
600 B.C.E.	Taoism (or Daoism) is established in China as a religion by the legendary Lao-Tzu, who is supposed to have written the basic text, the Tao-te Ching. The word tao means “the way.” Most scholars believe the Tao was written by several people.
600 B.C.E.	Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) is reputed to have been born in Persia. (Some believe that Zoroaster was much older.) Zoroastrianism, along with Judaism and the worship of Aten by Ahenhotep, is one of the few early religions to have rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism. Actually, Zoroastrianism, like some aspects of Judaism and Christianity (and certainly Gnosticism), is really a form of dualism, rather than strict monotheism. The one god of Zoroastrianism is Ahura Mazda, the source of good. At the other end of the spectrum is Ahriman (like Satan) representing evil. Like Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the only other monotheistic religions, a final judgment is supposed to take place during which the dead will rise and the world will be reborn. Islam eventually replaced Zoroastrianism, but despite persecution, the followers of this religion are still found in parts of Iran, but mostly in India, where they are known as Parsiis.
600 B.C.E.	The Etruscan civilization in Italy, located between the Tiber and Arno rivers, is at its height. The Etruscans arrived in Italy between 1000 and 800 B.C.E. and created a sophisticated city-based civilization.
597 B.C.E.	Jerusalem is captured and the Temple destroyed by the Chaldeans of Babylonia.
594 B.C.E.	Solon lays down the law for the democratic Athenian Greeks, limiting the power of the nobles.
586 B.C.E.	The Babylonians return, sack Jerusalem, and transport most of Judah and Benjamin into captivity in Babylonia under Nebuchadnezzar II. (This was similar to the treatment inflicted upon the American Indians in this century.) The Jews were allowed to return 70 years later.
575 B.C.E.	The Indo Europeans had invaded India more than a thousand years earlier, where they clearly mixed with the local population. For some reason, the caste system, a system of social stratification, became formalized in 575 B.C.E. India has about 3,000 castes and subcastes.
563 B.C.E.	Buddha born. Buddhism appears in India. Buddhism was founded by a Hindu prince named Siddhartha Gautama
550 B.C.E.	The Celts invade the island of Britain.
550 B.C.E.	Vardhamana Mahavira founded Jainism in India at about this time. The Jains believe that all life is sacred (if you can imagine that), including insects. Jainism is a significant religion in India to the present day. It was founded in protest to the orthodoxy of Vedic Hinduism. The basic teaching is the precept known as ahimsa which advocates noninjury to anything living. The goal is the victory of the sprit over the self and the world and the perfection of human nature, achieved through such traditional Hindu practices as yoga, self-denial and meditation. A very radical religion indeed. The two main Jain sects are the Digambaras and the Svetambaras.
550 or 551 B.C.E.	Confucius (K’ung-fu-tzu) is born around 550 B.C.E., and died in around 479 B.C.E.
550 B.C.E.E	This is the beginning of the golden age of classical Greek philosophy, lasting for over 200 years, well in to the 4th century. Representatives of the classical Greek philosophers include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle—each of whom was a student of the other, and all of whom were to some degree indebted to Thales, the first of the Greek philosophers.
550 B.C .	Cyrus II (the Great) melds the Persians and the Medes into one people and founds the Achaemenids empire, which ultimately included Iran to northern India, parts of Anatolia and Asia Minor, Assyria (conquered by the Medes in 612) and Babylon (539). The Persian empire lasted over 200 years, before falling to Alexander of Macedon.
539 B.C.E.	Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon and frees the Jews from captivity by edict in 538. Many Jews stayed and prospered in Babylon and many others returned to Jerusalem, where work was begun in rebuilding the Temple.
525 B.C.E.	The first early Greek tragedies and comedies were produced.
509 B.C.E.	The Rome is declared to be a republic, when Junius Brutus overthrew the Etruscan King Tarquin (Tarquinius Superbus).

500 B.C.E.	Bantu spread in East Africa.
500 B.C.E.	Abacus invented in Babylon, from whence it spread to Egypt, China, and the India.
546? B.C.E.	Darius I of Persia, invades Greece.
490 B.C.E.	The Athenians defeat the Persions under Darius at the Battle of Marathon, w/o Spartan help.
480 B.C.E.	Thermopylae & Salamis (Xerxes)
	Xerxes of Persia, invades Greece. Marathon and Thermopylae were land battles, and Salamis was fought at sea. Marathon and Salamis were Greek victories, while Thermopylae was a defeat. With the help of an enlarged Athenian navy built up by Themistocles, the Persian threat ended in 479 B.C.E..
460 B.C.E.	From 460 to 404 the Greeks (Athens and Sparta) conducted a series of disastrous wars known as the Peloponnesian Wars, described so vividly by Xenophon. The first Peloponnesian War began 460 and ended in 445. The second war (the great Peloponnesian War) ended in 431. Finally, in 405, the Athenian navy was totally destroyed by Lysander of Sparta. The next year Athens fell to the Spartans. who imposed their own governor, torn down the Athenian walls and reduced its navy to 12 ships.
440 B.C.E.	Democritus proposes that all matter is composed of atoms. Atom means indivisible in Greek. Aristotle, on the other hand, believed matter to be infinitely divisible.
438 B.C.E.	Construction of the Parthenon (begun in 447 and constructed out of white marble) is completed under the supervision of Phidias after having been commissioned by Peracles. The architects Itinus and Callicrates.
399 B.C.E.	Socratese tried and executed.
390 B.C.E.	The Gauls (we are most familiar with them as the modern day Irish) sack and burn Rome.

356 B.C.E.	Alexander the Great born.
323 B.C.E.	Alexander the Great dies, shortly after conquering most all of the civilized Western World (Greece, Egypt, Persia, much of India, Bactria, etc.). At his death, his empire was divided among four Macedonian Generals, whose heirs ruled until each was eventually conquered by Rome. Cleopatra, for example, was a descendant of Alexander’s Macedonian General Ptolemy.
325 B.C.E.	Chandragupta Maurya brings down the Nanda Dynasty and founds the Maurya Empire in India. The Maurya Empire lasted until 185 B.C.E. when it was replaced by the Sunga Dynasty The Mauryas were the first to subdue the greater part of the Indian Subcontinent.
300 B.C.E.	Euclid writes his famous geometry book. Euclid was a Greek living in Alexandria, Egypt.
290 B.C.E.	Perhaps the greatest library in the ancient world was founded in Alexandria, Egypt by the Ptolemies, the rulers of Egypt from the death of Alexander the Great until the death of Cleopatra. The library was partially destroyed several times. The main library was destroyed in the 3rd century AD. while Aurelian was the Roman Emperor. In The auxiliary library was destroyed by Christians in 391 AD, in an effort to wipe out pagan learning.
264 B.C.E.	The first Punic war between Rome and Carthage began in 264 B.C.E. and ended in 241. The word Punic is derived from the word Phoenician, the Canaanites of the Bible.
221 B.C.E.	Shih Huang Ti founds the short lived Ch’in dynasty in China, which began in 221 and lasted until 206 B.C.E., a mere 15 years. The immediately preceding dynasty, the Chou, had lasted for 900 years. Shih Huang Ti is credited with combining many small forts into what became the 1,500 mile long Great Wall of China. The Ch’in Dynasty was succeeded by the Han.
218 B.C.E.	The second Punic war between Carthage and Rome begins in 218 and ends in 201 B.C.E.
202 B.C.E.	The Han Dynasty in China is founded and lasts four hundred years.
200 B.C.E.	Asoka Maurya, ruler of India, rejects warfare and adopts Buddhism. (Buddhism did not become the dominant religion of China until the 4th and 5th centuries C.E. From China it was introduced into Korea, and from Korea into Japan (in the form of Zen Buddhism the 6th century, well after it had ceased to be a dominant religion in India where it arose.

196 B.C.E.	The Rosetta Stone, which first allowed scholars to decipher the Egyptian hieroglyphs, was engraved.
164 B.C.E.	The Maccabees recapture Jerusalem. Antiochus IV (or Antiochus Epiphanes) as Greek successor to Alexander’s General Antiochus who ruled Syria following Alexander’s early death, demanded that the Jews worship him instead of their God. He forbade the Jewish religion and in 168 invaded Jerusalem and occupied the Temple. A priest named Mattathias and his five sons led a rebellion outside Jerusalem, and one of the sons Judas, recaptured Jerusalem in 164, and thereafter ruled the city. This is the event celebrated as Hanukkah or Chanukah by the Jews to this day. The war with the Syrians continued outside Jerusalem for many years. After Judas died, he was succeeded by his brothers. The last brother, Simon finally ended the wars, and Judea was at peace until it was subjugated to Rome around 50 B.C.E. Simon was succeeded by his third son, John Hyrcanus, who ruled from 134-104 B.C.E. John Hyrcanus conquered Idumaea and the inhabitants were either forcibly converted to Judaism or slaughtered if they refused. Alexander Jannaeus, John's son, continued this Hasmonean policy of extirpating nonbelievers. There was a civil war, at the end of which, Alexander returned to Jerusalem with many of his Jewish enemies as captives. According to Josephus, as he was feasting with his concubines, in the sight of all the city, he ordered about 800 of his captives to be crucified, and while they were living, he ordered the throats of their children and wives to be cut before their eyes.
149146 B.C.E.	The third and last Punic war began in 149 B.C.E. and ended with the total destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146. B.C.E.
95 B.C.E.	Tigranes II (the Great) was established as King of Armenia. Tigranes controlled Albania, Syria, Parthia and parts of Spain and Portugal. His son Tigranes rebelled against his father and allied himself with Rome.
73 B.C.E.	Spartacus leads a slave revolt in Italy, which the Romans took two years put down. As punishment, the Romans crucified several thousand of the 90,000 rebels.
63 B.C.E.	Israel conquered by Pompey, ending the Maccabean dynasty.
60 B.C.E.	An uneasy alliance is formed, called the first Triumvirate, between Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus.
49 B.C.E.	Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon river and sets himself up as dictator of Rome.
46 B.C.E.	Rome conquers Britain.
44 B.C.E.	Julius Caesar assassinated on March 15.
42 B.C.E.	The second trimvirate, consisting of Octavian (later the emperor Augustus), MarkAntony and Marcus Lepidus, defeated the republicans (Caesar’s assassins).
31 B.C.E.	Octavian defeats Mark Antony in the battle of Actium and becomes Augustus, the first emperor of Rome.

Common Era

4 B.C.E.	Jesus Born. Herod dies.
14 C.E.	Augustus dies.
28 C.E.	Jesus Crucified.
50 C.E.	Paul (Saul of Tarsus) converted to Christianity.
63 C.E.	Rome occupies Jerusalem.
66 C.E.	The First Jewish Revolt against Rome ends in defeat for the Jews in 70 C.E. under the Emperor Titus who destroyed Jerusalem and expelled the Jews, who had no homeland again until 1948, almost 1900 years later. Titus ordered the destruction of the city and the expulsion of the Jews. After this event the Jews had no formal homeland until the creation of the modern State of Israel in 1948.

^[1]The Bible as History, Second Revised Edition, by Werner Keller, William Morrow and Company, Inc.,. 1981, p. 48.